André Luís Luza is a postdoc at Universidade Federal de Santa Maria, Brazil. He is an ecologist with special focus on community ecology, macroecology, and macroevolution. Here, André shares his recent work on functional diversity patterns of reef fish, corals and algae.

André Luís Luza is currently a post-doctoral researcher at the Universidade Federal de Santa Maria – Rio Grande do Sul/Brazil.

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Institute. Department of Ecology and Evolution, Universidade Federal de Santa Maria, Brazil

Academic life stage. Postdoc

Major research themes. I study community ecology, macroecology, and macroevolution, with a strong focus on integrating theoretical frameworks and methodological approaches from these fields. My primary interest lies in investigating how past and present dynamics shape current biodiversity patterns.

Current study system. Shallow-water reefs occur along the coastal tropical and subtropical areas of the global ocean and support a multitude of unique interactions among organisms and between organisms and their environment. Brazilian shallow-water reefs form an interesting and often intriguing study system, especially due to their unique evolutionary history. Isolated from the Indo-Pacific and Caribbean reef biodiversity hotspots for over 3 million years, these reefs have evolved distinct patterns of endemism, species richness, and trait diversity. The influence of freshwater and sediment discharge from the continent’s large rivers adds further complexity. Despite their remarkable characteristics, the geographical patterns of reef diversity in the Brazilian Biogeographical Province and the underlying driving factors are yet to be fully understood.

Recent JBI paper. Luza, A. L., Aued, A. W., Barneche, D. R., Dias, M. S., Ferreira, C. E. L., Floeter, S. R., Francini-Filho, R. B., Longo, G. O., Quimbayo, J. P., & Bender, M. G. (2023). Functional diversity patterns of reef fish, corals and algae in the Brazilian biogeographical province. Journal of Biogeography, 50, 1163– 1176. https://doi.org/10.1111/jbi.14599

Motivation behind this paper. Our recent paper was motivated by two main factors. Firstly, while interactions between organisms and environmental gradients can generate spatially congruent patterns of diversity across reef ecosystems, this aspect had not been evaluated for fish, corals, and algae in the Brazilian reefs. Secondly, we aimed to address a gap in the understanding of functional diversity patterns by assessing spatial congruence among distantly related groups. Traits such as size, morphology, feeding behavior, and mobility play a vital role in how organisms associate and respond to the environment. Thus, our study aimed to fill this knowledge gap in this extensive biogeographical province using a trait-based approach.

Reef fish, including endemic parrotfishes (Labridae family), sharing the seascape and interacting with algae and endemic corals in the Abrolhos Bank, northeast Brazil. Reefs in Brazil develop under turbid and nutrient-rich waters, producing unique assemblages of species. Photo credit: João Paulo Krajewski

Key methodologies. Our recent paper was developed as part of an ecological synthesis working group called ‘ReefSYN’ (SinBiose, CNPq). The ReefSYN collaborators collected and compiled occurrence data and functional traits of fish and benthic reef organisms along the Brazilian coast and oceanic islands. This unprecedented effort in building comprehensive databases and conducting cross-taxon analyses enabled us to assess diversity patterns in Brazilian reefs using spatially replicated local data.

To assess spatial congruence, we employed Bayesian multivariate linear models, which are particularly suitable and innovative. These models allowed us to simultaneously evaluate: i) the spatial correlation between the functional diversity of reef fish, corals, and algae; ii) the influence of various factors (such as sea surface temperature and species richness) on the functional diversity of each group; and iii) the residual spatial correlation after accounting for these factors.

This approach enabled us to determine whether the existing congruence was driven by the modeled factors or by unaccounted variables. By leveraging these methodologies, our study provided new insights into the patterns of spatial congruence and the underlying drivers of functional diversity in Brazilian reefs.

Feeding aggregation of coney (Cephalopholis fulva, Epinephelidae family) in tropical rocky reefs of Fernando de Noronha Archipelago, northeast Brazil. Photo credit: João Paulo Krajewski.

Unexpected challenges. During our research journey, we encountered unexpected outcomes and challenges that enhanced the depth of our scientific inquiry. Matching occurrence and trait data for different organisms and conducting analyses across distantly related groups proved to be challenging. The sampling of reef fish and benthic organisms was carried out by separate teams, using different methods, which resulted in data being organized in various formats. Standardizing these datasets for interoperability required a collaborative effort and an exploration of the field of data science. Analyzing the functional diversity of distantly related groups presented another challenge, as organisms separated by significant phylogenetic distances share few common traits. Furthermore, the resolution of traits was higher for fish compared to corals and algae. To overcome these challenges, we delved into trait-based approaches, leveraging available traits to facilitate meaningful comparisons of functional diversity patterns across groups. These unexpected outcomes and challenges enriched our research journey, compelling us to employ innovative solutions and embrace interdisciplinary approaches to unravel the complexities of the Brazilian reef ecosystems.

Major results. The major finding of our recent paper reveals the spatial correlations in functional diversity among reef fish, corals, and algae in the Brazilian Province. Interestingly, we discovered weak to intermediate correlations in the patterns of functional diversity across these groups. Additionally, these patterns deviated from the classic latitudinal diversity gradient observed in other regions. Sea surface temperature (SST), species richness, and regional factors were identified as key determinants that influence the spatial correlations in functional diversity. Our study contributes to the field by shedding light on the factors that underlie the spatial congruence between groups of organisms. We demonstrate that both present factors (SST and species richness) and past factors (region) play crucial roles in shaping the observed spatial patterns. Importantly, we highlight the vulnerability of reef functional structure to cumulative anthropogenic impacts, such as climate change, pollution, and overfishing. These impacts have the potential to disrupt species composition, alter environmental gradients, and affect functional redundancy, posing a threat to the overall resilience of reef ecosystems.

The fire coral Millepora alcicornis and the Queen angelfish (Holacanthus ciliaris) in Abrolhos reefs (Brazil). Photo credit: João Paulo Krajewski.

Next steps for this research. The discovery of an overall low to intermediate correlation in functional diversity among reef fish, corals, and algae opens up intriguing avenues for future research. We aim to delve deeper into understanding the factors that have shaped this congruence and explore the functioning of these ecosystems, despite the weak relationships between organisms. Our next steps involve investigating the presence of ecological engineers or keystone species that drive crucial ecological fluxes and nutrient cycling, as well as their spatial distribution within the reefs. Additionally, we aim to assess the vulnerability of these key species to the impacts of climate change. Can Brazilian reefs simultaneously provide multiple ecosystem functions and services, despite low ecological congruence? These questions remain open and will guide our future investigations.

If you could study any organism on Earth, what would it be? If I were given the opportunity to study any organism on Earth, I would choose to concentrate on extinct organisms, specifically fossils of vertebrates. Fossils offer invaluable insights into the ecological and evolutionary processes that have shaped the patterns of biodiversity we currently observe. For instance, through the examination of fish fossils in conjunction with phylogenetic analyses, we can enhance our understanding of the mechanisms that underlie the weak association between reef fish and benthic organisms in the Brazilian province. This multidimensional approach would enable us to uncover the ecological and evolutionary dynamics that have influenced present-day reef ecosystems.

Anything else to add? In my journey as a biologist, I initially focused on studying non-volant small mammals in grassland and forest ecosystems, starting from my undergraduate years in Biology back in 2010. While collaborating on various research projects involving birds, amphibians, and mosquitoes, I had never worked with marine organisms before joining ReefSYN as a postdoctoral researcher in 2020. This presented an exciting challenge for me as I delved into the fascinating field of reef ecology. It wasn’t until March 2023, three years after becoming part of the ReefSYN working group, that I had my first diving experience. Currently, my research is centered around a project that combines macreecology, macroevolution, and paleontology. The project aims to unravel the mechanisms driving the emergence of the first mammals and understand the consequences of the Triassic-Jurassic extinction event. By bridging these disciplines, we hope to shed light on key evolutionary processes and their impact on the diversification of life.

Anne is a postdoc at the Laboratoire d’Ecologie Alpine, CNRS, France. She is an ecologist studying at the intersection of phylogenetics, biogeography, and climate change. Both in prose and verse, Anne shares the history of New Zealand’s largest plant radiation.

Anne hugging a hebe in the subalpine tussock grassland of the Rock and Pillar range in Otago, NZ.

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Institute. Laboratoire d’Ecologie Alpine, CNRS, France.

Academic life stage. Postdoc.

Recent JBI paper. Thomas, A., Meudt, H. M., Larcombe, M. J., Igea, J., Lee, W. G., Antonelli, A., & Tanentzap, A. J. (2023). Multiple origins of mountain biodiversity in New Zealand’s largest plant radiation. Journal of Biogeography, 50(5), 947–960. https://doi.org/10.1111/jbi.14589

Uplifting Plants: How Mountains Generate Plant Diversity.

Mountains all over the world are known as biodiversity hotspots. New Zealand’s largest group of endemic plants, flowering shrubs called hebes (genus Veronica), has over 120 species, most of which live in mountain habitats in New Zealand’s Southern Alps. DNA evidence suggests the group is only around 6 million years old—relatively young on an evolutionary timescale—but hebes have surprisingly diverse forms. They range from small trees with long, narrow leaves, to dense shrubs, to cushion plants that only grow in the high alpine zone. Can their preferred mountain habitats explain how hebes evolved so much diversity in so little time?

I explored this question in my PhD research, but also through poetry. Before delving further into the scientific take on mountain diversity, here’s a poem to give us a look at the diversity of hebes in situ.

Phyllotaxis: decussate

Some of the hypothesized reasons for high mountain diversity in places like the Andes and Himalayas are centred on the habitat: high heterogeneity, barriers to gene flow between populations, and novel, harsh conditions that allow suitably adapted plants to escape competition. These conditions could encourage speciation within mountains. However, the diversity could also come from surrounding areas, transferring to the mountains through colonization. In New Zealand, the estimated origin of the Southern Alps is several million years after that of the hebes, with relief beginning to form around 4 million years ago and a persistent alpine zone around 1.9 million years ago. When the possible ancestor of the hebes arrived in New Zealand, the land was most likely still very flat (a “peneplain”). This makes the hebes a useful case study for teasing apart in situ diversification and colonization as drivers of mountain diversity.

To do this, I first inferred the evolutionary relationships of hebe species with a time-calibrated phylogeny estimated from dozens of genes. This poem gives an idea of what that process is like:

After estimating when species formed, the next step is to reconstruct where they might have formed. With the phylogeny telling us about the past and a map of species telling us about the present, we can do some math to predict the most likely path the ancestral species would have taken through the landscape to arrive at their present distributions. This is historical biogeographical modelling.

My models showed that the core group of hebes, to which most of the species belong, didn’t arise until their common ancestor colonized the newly rising mountains, followed by a surge of speciation. Their evolution was indeed linked to the new mountain habitat.  The surprising thing was that even though the mountains kept rising, the rate of new species didn’t. When the mountains rose high enough for there to be a treeless high alpine zone, most species successfully expanded their range to live in that new habitat. However, only a few species split off into new specialist alpine species, and the rest were happy continuing to live in both the subalpine and the alpine zones without forming many new species. This could indicate that the first successful species outcompeted any new species that tried to form.

This pattern could also have implications for the future. I’ve been talking about broad evolutionary time: millions of years. There was a lot of change in this time—not only the mountains rising but also fluctuations in climate. There were warm and cold periods and glacial advance and retreat, which created extra challenges and opportunities for hebes in the mountains. Clearly, a lot of them were able to survive, but there were likely others that didn’t. Now we’re facing a period of unprecedented climate change. In another few million years, the New Zealand flora will inevitably look different. But the question for the immediate future is, how much evolutionary potential in the diversity we have now might be lost to the speed of environmental change? The generalists with wide ranges might survive, but they also might push out the species specially adapted to the coldest zones, the cushion plants and whipcords. Or they might be pushed out themselves by plants from even warmer areas.

I’ll leave you with a poem that imagines the perspective of one of those alpine plants.

Alpine Elegy

I am alpine.
I hunch and hug the ground
where the wind sears
and summer is too cold for trees.
I like it here.
I’m found nowhere else.

My ten-millionth-great grandparents
clung to coastal rocks
when the land was low and warm
blanketed in beech shade.
Lifting land meant shifting luck
for their children:
new rocks, wind, and light.
They climbed.

After mountains rose, 
glaciers descended.
My ancestors were ice-dodgers
as the crush heaved down and up
their home-slopes.
They sent out seeds
with luck and pluck.
Some survived.

It’s been quieter.
For ten thousand generations
my kin and I have calibrated
to this high band of land,
its stable chill, its harsh peace.
The alpine made us.
We made it our own.

But I sense change in the wind—
winter losing its edge
snow blanket growing bare
shady strangers creeping in
no longer kept at bay by freeze.
I will my children upslope.
I hope I gift them lucky genes.

And when they find only sky?

Hebes, Veronica section Hebe species. Flowers (top left), showcases fruits after seeds have been released (bottom left), species with a whipcord habit (centre), apical leaf bud (top right) and tree habit and unripe fruit (bottom right).

Victoria Glynn is a PhD candidate at McGill University, Canada. She is an ecologist & science educator with a special focus on coral adaptation to environmental stressors. Here, Victoria shares her recent work on the factors structuring coral-algal symbioses.

The PhD candidate Victoria Glynn

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Institute. McGill University, Montréal, Canada

Academic life stage. PhD candidate

Recent JBI paper. Glynn, V. M., Vollmer, S. V., Kline, D. I., & Barrett, R. D. H. (2023) . Environmental and geographical factors structure cauliflower coral’s algal symbioses across the Indo-Pacific. Journal of Biogeography, 50(4), 669–684. https://doi.org/10.1111/jbi.14560

Caption. There is a complex interplay between thermal history and geographic isolation in structuring the symbioses of cauliflower corals (Pocillopora spp.) and their dinoflagellates (family Symbiodiniaceae). When analyzing publicly available dinoflagellate marker-gene data from the nuclear ribosomal DNA internal transcribed spacer 2 (ITS2), cauliflower corals across the Indo-Pacific were found to associate with three different dinoflagellate genera: Cladocopium spp., Durusdinium spp., and Symbiodinium spp.

(1) We found some evidence that geographic isolation could explain dinoflagellate community differences, but the effect was relatively weak.

(2) Sea surface temperature was the factor that most strongly affected community composition, such that corals from locations most similar in temperature had more similar dinoflagellate communities.

(3) Additionally, when considering time since the last mass bleaching event, corals that had more recently bleached (within the last 5 years) had similar proportions of Cladocopium spp. and Durusdinium spp. Meanwhile, corals that had not recently bleached were additionally associated with Symbiodinium spp. Together, our findings highlight how local environmental conditions and bleaching history can impact coral-dinoflagellate symbioses, even in a coral genus with a widespread distribution.

Biography. Victoria Marie Glynn is a PhD candidate at McGill University (Montréal, Québec) and a Fellow at the Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute (STRI) in Panama. She is broadly interested in how corals and their microorganisms (microbiome) implement a diversity of strategies to cope with environmental stress. Victoria implements cutting-edge molecular techniques to answer the overarching question: who is there, and what are they doing? As a STRI Fellow, she leverages the unique conditions of Panama’s Tropical Eastern Pacific, where upwelling occurs on a seasonal basis and El Niño events are common, to study the mechanisms underlying coral bleaching. Outside research, Victoria is involved in various science outreach and equity, diversity, and inclusion projects as a Science Education Fellow in the Office of Science Education at McGill and the Redpath Museum’s graduate public programming representative. She also creates scientific illustrations to add a storytelling element to her practice, so that fellow researchers and the general public alike can better understand the various scales and dynamics she is investigating.

Ella is a PhD student at the University of Toronto, Canada. She is broadly interested in species interactions and plant ecology and evolution, and is currently studying urban eco-evolutionary dynamics. Here, Ella shares her perspective about the study of global patterns while living a global pandemic.

Ella, at her desk at home in April 2020.

Institute. University of Toronto.

Academic life stage. PhD.

Recent JBI paper. Martin, E., & Hargreaves, A. L. (2023). Gradients in the time seeds take to germinate could alter global patterns in predation strength. Journal of Biogeography, 50(5), 884–896. https://doi.org/10.1111/jbi.14582

Big questions, small world: studying global patterns while living a global pandemic. I began this project in March 2020. I was three months into my Master’s degree at McGill University and was stuck at home learning to accept the growing likelihood that my plans for fieldwork in the Galapagos islands were not going to happen any time soon. While awaiting news of university verdicts on international fieldwork, one of my co-supervisors, Dr. Anna Hargreaves pitched me the idea: a synthesis study exploring latitudinal gradients in the time seeds take to germinate. The idea came out of her work on latitudinal gradients in the strength of species interactions, especially her recent-at-the-time “B.I.G. Experiment”, a large-scale standardized seed predation experiment. This project, and several others like it were testing the hypothesis that species interactions should be stronger (and therefore more ecologically and evolutionarily important) at lower latitudes and elevations, originally proposed by Charles Darwin nearly two hundred years before.

An illustration of the biotic interactions hypothesis. Tropical latitudes are usually warmer, more biodiverse, and have higher productivity. In these more climatically favourable environments, species interactions are expected to be stronger, in this case: higher rates of daily seed predation.

To test this hypothesis, researchers used standardized prey: artificial or commercial versions of early life stages that don’t belong to any particular environment, and so avoid any cases of local adaptation. This method allows researchers to set out prey, and return at a later time to count how many had been eaten, obtaining comparable measures of daily predation rates at locations around the world. What it ignores, however, is exposure time: the duration of time a prey is exposed to predators which determines its risk of being predated over its lifetime, and thus the actual ecological or evolutionary importance of predation. This is where I came in. Using seeds as our study system and published literature as our data source, we set out to try to answer whether seeds’ exposure time (the length of time between dispersal and germination) varied geographically, potentially altering the predicted global patterns of seed predation strength. To do so, I set out to collect as much data on germination times from as many species and locations as I could, in hopes of revealing large-scale patterns.

I adapted to the work of conducting a synthesis project at the same time as I adapted to the work-from-home lifestyle. Rather than spending my summer working outdoors in an exotic location, I spent it at home, travelling the world from the couch, the back porch, the kitchen table, or my bed, through the papers I was reading and extracting data from. I filled spreadsheets with germination times as I spent time watching the plants grow back in my garden and on my walks around the neighbourhood. By the end of the summer, I had filtered through thousands and read over a hundred papers on germination times (often in the middle of the night as I had also lost all concept of time and become semi-nocturnal).

We had realized that compiling data on germination times was not so straightforward due to the large variability in methods. Some studies tested germination timing in the natural field conditions, some in outdoor pots, some in greenhouses, and some in growth chambers under a variety of conditions. Some studies pretreated seeds to induce germination, whereas others did not. Some studies reported time to germination as a mean, or a time to 50% germination, or a maximum or a minimum. I spent the next year doing analyses: excluding some data, adding new data, adding and removing model terms, trying different modelling approaches, looking at relationships between time to germination and latitude, elevation, temperature, precipitation, seed size, and phylogeny. I began to realize and use the wealth of data that exists online free for public use. I could instantly download climate data from all over the world, I could find databases of seed sizes, and plant phylogenies that could help me answer global-scale questions spanning over a thousand species.

An example of a seed depot used in standardized seed predation experiments, this one in my backyard with sunflower seeds, for a different project.

Across all of our analyses, the results remained consistent, if somewhat difficult to explain. We observed that, in natural environments, seeds germinated faster at high latitudes, but low elevations, despite our expectations that these two gradients would be analogous. In terms of climate, seeds in nature germinated faster in warmer, drier environments with high temperature seasonality. What this tells us is that it is unlikely that seeds in high predation (low latitude, low elevation, warm, wet, consistent) environments are unlikely to have universally evolved faster germination to escape predation. In fact, tropical seeds tended to have longer germination times, meaning that they not only have a higher daily risk of predation, but they are exposed to predators over a longer period, resulting in a much greater lifetime risk of predation than seeds at high latitudes, which appear to experience low predation rates over short time periods. For elevational gradients, however, faster exposure times in low predation environments (low elevations), means that seeds would experience similar predation risks across elevations.

Clearly, there is still much to learn about how seeds respond to predation. Syntheses projects have their limits, but being able to take on this type of large-scale biogeographic question, to try to inform our understanding of global patterns in species traits, without leaving the house in the midst of a pandemic, was still a fascinating experience. My perception of the world simultaneously condensed to my home and immediate surroundings, and expanded as I learned about species from around the world and thought about these global patterns, with only a laptop and an internet connection.

An emerging white clover (Trifolium repens) in a growth chamber.

Daubian Santos is a postdoc at the Universidade Federal do ABC, Brazil. He is a evolutionary biologist with special focus on biogeography of craneflies. Here, Daubian presents SAMBA, a method for revealing shared patterns of biotic distribution.

Dr. Daubian Santos, postdoc at Universidade Federal do ABC, Brazil

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Institute. Universidade Federal do ABC, Brazil, Institute of Systematics and Evolution of Animals

Academic life stage. Postdoc

Major research themes. Biogeography and Palaeontology

Current study system. I study craneflies. Craneflies are mosquitoes with long legs that may reach impressive sizes. This infraorder is ancient, highly endemic, and widely distributed throughout the world. They inhabit a range of environments, from glaciers to deserts, from urban areas to the canopy of tropical forests. Interestingly, the number of species within this group exceeds the combined number of mammals and birds. Despite the large number of known species, there are still many yet to be discovered, including some of the larger size ones. Therefore, studying craneflies presents an excellent opportunity to explore biodiversity.

Recent JBI paper. Santos, D., Sampronha, S., Hammoud, M., Gois, J. P., & Santos, C. M. D. (2023). SAMBA: Super area‐cladogram after resolving multiple biogeographical ambiguities. Journal of Biogeography, 50(4), 816–825. https://doi.org/10.1111/jbi.14569

A piece of Baltic amber containing a specimen of Eloeophila eocenica, the newest described species

Motivation behind this paper. Historical biogeography has been a relevant field for a considerable period, providing insights into species evolution and dispersal over time. However, with the discovery of more complex species distributions, more efficient methods are required to tackle these challenges. Unfortunately, there are not many new and effective methods available, and most of them do not have online software, which makes it difficult for researchers to access them. In response, we became very motivated to develop a new methodology based on simple theoretical principles, providing reliable results to overcome the lack of consensus in area cladograms. Improving methods in historical biogeography will provide a better understanding of life’s evolution and distribution on Earth.

Key methodologies. The main key methodology of SAMBA is to avoid using assumptions. By avoiding the use of assumptions, SAMBA aims to reduce the amount of noise in the analysis, resulting in more accurate and reliable findings. It is crucial in the field of historical biogeography to see the individual complexity of the distributions and identify the recurrent pattern accurately. As a novel approach, we adapted the method of super-trees that allows an efficient summarization of information from area cladograms. The innovative approach of SAMBA, and its online implementation, is a new way to analyse the data and may provide new insights into the distribution of life on Earth. More and more studies with new methods may bring a lot of new information.

Fossil of the family Limoniidae from the Brazilian Cretaceous period

Unexpected challenges. Proposing and developing something new is never an easy task. After establishing the theoretical framework of the methodology, the further step was to test it. However, since the computational implementation was developed later, we had to conduct many (and many) tests before arriving at the final SAMBA protocol. This testing period provided us valuable time to rethink certain aspects of the methodology. The adaptation of the super-tree concept came later, but it was essential in refining the SAMBA method. The implementation of the super-tree concept allowed us to summarise information from area cladograms and achieve a more consensus-based approach. Although the development process was challenging, the final product is a robust and reliable methodology. The thinking-and-rethinking process is necessary to make any method useful.

Major results. My work formalized the new method of historical biogeography called SAMBA. This methodology avoids using assumptions and aims to summarise information with minimal noise. In addition to the methodology, we tried to provide a computational implementation to increase the method’s applicability and efficiency. This method was tested under real examples and theoretical models and compared with other previous methodologies. This new method is efficient to summarise the area cladogram information. We believe that the SAMBA methodology and its computational implementation can provide a valuable tool for researchers in the field of historical biogeography with a simplified theoretical basis.

Described paratypes of Aphrophila edwardsi

Next steps for this research. I will start a post-doctoral research project focusing on mosquitoes preserved in Baltic amber. This project is particularly interesting because it will provide insights into the composition of Eocene ecosystems, in which craneflies played an essential role. During this period, Europe was characterized by subtropical forests, and the insect fauna that followed was more similar to the modern pattern. However, the shift of biotas during this time is not yet fully understood. Craneflies are the most commonly found Diptera in the paleontological record, and studying these species is crucial to unravelling this fascinating period of evolution.

If you could study any organism on Earth, what would it be? I would like to study the first winged insect. The evolution of wings is still one the greatest mysteries in Entomology.

Anything else to add? When I started college, I had a strong desire to study any animal, except mosquitoes. However, it was precisely them that I ended up studying! I was both surprised and fascinated by its enormous diversity. It is incredible how much we can learn from these small, but enchanting beings.

Difference of size of two Brazilian craneflies